Atomic+Theory

Definitions.

 * ====**Atom**: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of at least one proton and (for all elements except hydrogen) one or more neutrons in a dense central nucleus, surrounded by one or more shells of electrons.====
 * **Proton**: A stable, positively charged subatomic particle in the baryon family having a mass 1,836 times that of the electron.
 * **Neutron**: An electrically neutral subatomic particle in the baryon family, having a mass 1,839 times that of the electron, stable when bound in an atomic nucleus, and having a mean lifetime of approximately 1.0 × 103 seconds as a free particle. It and the proton form nearly the entire mass of atomic nuclei.
 * **Electron**: a stable elementary particle present in all atoms, orbiting the nucleus in numbers equal to the atomic number of the element in the neutral atom.
 * **Orbital**: The wave function of an electron in an atom or molecule, indicating the electron's probable location.
 * **Nucleus**: The positively charged central region of an atom, composed of one or more protons and (for all atoms except hydrogen) one or more neutrons, containing most of the mass of the atom.
 * **Element**: A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. An element is composed of atoms that have the same atomic number, that is, each atom has the same number of protons in its nucleus as all other atoms of that element.
 * **Compound**: a substance that contains atoms of two or more chemical elements held together by chemical bonds.
 * **Substance**: That which has mass and occupies space; matter.
 * **Mixture**: A composition of two or more substances that are not chemically combined with each other and are capable of being separated.
 * **Isotope**: One of two or more atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers.

=﻿**Difference between chemical and physical properties**= []
 * **Chemical Property** || **Physical Property** ||
 * The ability of a substance to combine or change into one or more other substances. Chemical properties are characteristics of matter that can be observed as a result of a chemical reaction; therefore changing the original substance. || physical properties are characteristics of matter that you can observe with your senses or that can be measured without changing molecular composition. Things like color, shape, size, texture, and temperature are properties that you can observe with your senses. Physical characteristics that may be measured can be gravitation, melting point, velocity, resistance, boiling point, etc. ||
 * Difference between physical and chemical properties:**

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Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford, Ernest (1871-1937): Born in New Zealand, Rutherford studied under J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory in England. His work constituted a notable landmark in the history of atomic research as he developed [Bacquerel|Becquerel’s] discovery of Radioactivity into an exact and documented proof that the atoms of the heavier elements, which had been thought to be immutable, actually disintegrate (decay) into various forms of radiation. Rutherford was the first to establish the theory of the nuclear atom and to carry out a transmutation reaction (1919) (formation of hydrogen and and oxygen isotope by bombardment of nitrogen with alpha particles). Uranium emanations were shown to consist of three types of rays, alpha (helium nuclei) of low penetrating power, beta (electrons), and gamma, of exceedingly short wavelength and great energy. Ernest Rutherford also discovered the half-life of radioactive elements and applied this to studies of age determination of rocks by measuring the decay period of radium to lead-206.

**﻿John Dalton **  The fundamental idea of modern chemistry is that matter is made up of atoms of various sorts, which can be combined and rearranged to produce different, and often novel, materials. The person responsible for "this master-concept of our age" (Greenaway, p. 227) was John Dalton. He applied Newton's idea of small, indivisible atoms to the study of gases in the atmosphere and used it to advance a quantitative explanation of chemical composition. If French chemist Antoine Lavoisier started the chemical revolution, then it was Dalton who put it on a firm foundation. His contemporary, the Swedish chemist Jöns J. Berzelius, said: "If one takes away from Dalton everything but the atomic idea, that will make his name immortal."

**Henry moseley**

Henry Moseley (1887-1915): A British chemist, Henry Moseley studied under [|Rutherford] and brilliantly developed the application of X-ray spectra to study atomic structure; Moseley's discoveries resulted in a more accurate positioning of elements in the [|Periodic Table] by closer determination of atomic numbers. Tragically for the development of science, Moseley was killed in action at Gallipoli in 1915. In 1913, almost fifty years after [|Mendeleev], Henry Moseley published the results of his measurements of the wavelengths of the X-ray spectral lines of a number of elements which showed that the ordering of the wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of the elements coincided with the ordering of the elements by atomic number. With the discovery of isotopes of the elements, it became apparent that atomic weight was not the significant player in the periodic law as Mendeleev, Meyers and others had proposed, but rather, the properties of the elements varied periodically with atomic number. When atoms were arranged according to increasing atomic number, the few problems with Mendeleev's periodic table had disappeared. Because of Moseley's work, the modern periodic table is based on the atomic numbers of the elements.


 * Democritus **

Atomic theory and the concept of atoms was well known among the ancient Greeks. The most highly developed theory was that of Democritus of Abdera. Democritus was probably born about 460 b.c. and died about 370 b.c. He is reputed to have written more than 70 books, although almost none of his __ writing __ survives. Most of what we know of Democritus comes from the writings of those who came after him. Democritus argued that all matter consists of tiny, physically invisible particles. The Greek word //atomos//, in fact, means "indivisible." Democritus taught that an infinite number of atoms exist and that they are in constant motion. The space between atoms, he said, is occupied by a void. Atoms were never created, according to Democritus, but have always existed, just as they are now. They are also eternal; that is, they cannot be destroyed.. Atoms have physical __ properties __ that explain the properties of matter, he said. Atoms of water, for example, are round and smooth, permitting them to slide over each other; conversely, atoms of fire have jagged edges. Atomic theories were popular among some Greeks because they provided a way of explaining one of the great philosophical questions of the time: Is there any permanence in a world that seems to be filled with constant change? If atoms exist, //they// constitute an enduring constancy in the world. Therefore, the changes we see, are, in a sense, illusions. They are merely the rearrangement of eternal particles (atoms). Some scholars believe that Democritus' atomic theory was not really his own, but that of his __ teacher __, Leucippus of Miletus. It is believed that Leucippus was born about 490 b.c., but almost nothing is known about his life. In fact, some scholars question whether such a person ever lived. He is also credited with originating the theory of causality, namely, that everything that happens in nature has a cause.

google images[|http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/gpvanier/school/teachers_departments/links/Chem%2011%20Website/UNIT3_files/Unit%203%20PLO's.html]

Average atomic mass = (68.926) (x/100) + (70.925)(100-x/100) = 69.72 68.926x + 7092.5 - 70.925x = 6972 -1.999x = - 120.5 x = 60.280

So abundance of 69 Ga = 60.280% []

Physical changes are be exemplified by phase changes such as boiling, freezing, sublimation, etc. There is no new substance created.



[]

Robert Andrews Millikan (March 22, 1868 - December 19, 1953) was a U.S. experimental physicist who won the 1923 Nobel Prize for his measurement of the charge of the [|electron] and for his work on the [|photoelectric effect]. He later studied [|cosmic rays]. Millikan received a Bachelor's degree in the classics from Oberlin College in 1891 and his doctorate in physics from Columbia University in 1895. He explained his transition from classics to physics in his autobiography. Millikan's enthusiasm for education continued throughout his career, and he was the coauthor of a popular and influential series of introductory textbooks,[|[1]] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Millikan#endnote_texts) which were ahead of their time in many ways. Compared to other books of the time, they treated the subject more in the way in which it was thought about by physicists. They also included many homework problems that asked conceptual questions, rather than simply requiring the student to plug numbers into a formula. In 1910, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Millikan published the first results of his [|oil-drop experiment] (since repeated, with varying degrees of success, by generations of physics students) in which he measured the charge on a single electron. The so-called [|elementary charge] is one of the fundamental [|physical constants] and accurate knowledge of its value is of great importance. His experiment measured the force on tiny charged droplets of oil suspended against gravity between two metal electrodes. Knowing the electric field, the charge on the droplet could be determined. Repeating the experiment for many droplets, Millikan showed that the results could be explained as integer multiples of a common value (1.592×10-19 [|coulomb]), the charge on a single electron. That this is somewhat lower than the [|modern value] of 1.60217653×10-19 coulomb is probably due to Millikan's use of a somewhat inaccurate value for the viscosity of air.



Millikan’s oil-drop apparatus, shown above in his Chicago laboratory, had many components, including the hefty brass chamber (at right, set up for a much later demonstration in 1969). A diagram taken from his controversial 1913 paper (bottom right) shows that the chamber contained two metal plates (M and N) to which he applied a high voltage, generated by a bank of batteries (B). Fine droplets of oil produced by a perfume atomizer (A) were fed into the top of the chamber. A tiny hole in the upper plate allowed the occasional droplet (p) to fall through, at which point it was illuminated by an arc lamp (a) and could be seen in magnification through a telescope. A manometer (m) indicated internal pressure. To eliminate differences in temperature (and associated convection currents), Millikan immersed the brass chamber in a  container of motor oil (G), and he screened out the infrared components of the illumination using an 80-cmlong glass vessel filled with water (w) and another glass cell filled with a cupric chloride solution (d). An x-ray tube (X) allowed him to ionize the air around the droplet. With this equipment, Millikan could watch an oil drop that carried a small amount of charge rise when the applied electric field forced it upward and fall when only gravity tugged on it. By repeatedly timing the rate of rise and fall, he could determine precisely the electric charge on the drop.



Cosmic rays were the subject of Millikan’s research in the latter half of his career, after coming to Caltech in 1921 at theage of 53. Not only did he give them their name and call attention to their significance, he also lugged detectors such as this one to various altitudes around the world to measure the rays. Millikan died in 1953. _

__ Mendeleev Dmitry : (1834-1907), Russian chemist, best known for his development of the periodic table of chemical elements. This table displays a periodicity(regular pattern) in the element's properties when they are arranged according to atomic weight. In 1866 Mendeleev became professor of general chemistry at the University of St. Petersburg. Finding that no modern organic chemistry textbook existed in Russian, Mendeleev decided to write one (it became a classic work, going through many editions). It was in the course of this project that he made his most important contribution to chemistry. //Principles of// __



__On February 14, 1869, Mendeleev began work on the chapter that would discuss the elements. He already believed that there was some underlying principle connecting the elements. He transcribed his notes onto a set of cards, one for each element containing everything he knew about that element. He arranged and rearranged the cards until he was struck by a similarity between his arrangements and those of the card game patience (solitaire), in which cards are sorted by suit and then in descending numerical order. Exhausted, Mendeleev fell asleep. When he awoke, he devised a grouping of the elements by common property in ascending order of atomic weight. He called his innovation the Periodic Table of the Elements.__
 * **Property** || **Eka Aluminum** || **Gallium** ||
 * Atomic weight || ±68 || 69.9 ||
 * Density || 5.9 || 5.93 ||
 * Melting point || Low || 30.1°C ||

 __ John Dalton & Ernest Rutherford __

__ [](FOR MORE INFO CHECK OUT THIS SITE) __ __ [] __ __ ** Rutherford's Contribution: ** __

__ After Rutherford's discovery, scientists started to realize that the atom is not ultimately a single particle, but is made up of far smaller subatomic particles. Following research was done to figure out the exact atomic structure which led to Rutherford’s [|gold foil experiment]. They eventually discovered that atoms have a positively-charged nucleus (with an exact atomic number of charges) in the center, with a radius of about 1.2 x 10−15 meters x [Atomic Mass Number]1/3. Since electrons were found to be even smaller, this meant that the atom consists of mostly empty space. __ __ Later on, scientists found the expected number of electrons (the same as the atomic number) in an atom by using [|X-rays]. When an X-ray passes through an atom, some of it is [|scattered], while the rest passes through the atom. Since the X-ray loses its intensity primarily due to scattering at electrons, by noting the rate of decrease in X-ray intensity, the number of electrons contained in an atom can accurately be estimated. __ __** Dalton's Contibution: **__ __ Dalton found out these rules about matter and atoms: All matter is made of atoms and atoms of one element cannot be converted to atoms of another element Compounds are always the result of specific. After having sat dormant for more than two thousand years, atomic theory was finally brought into the modern age with the work of John Dalton. __

__Dalton’s Noble, yet Imperfect Theory__
__ There was one nearly fatal flaw in John Dalton’s logic regarding atomic theory, however. __ __ In his list of atomic rules, Dalton made sure to add that these particles must, by definition, be indivisible – as the name “atom” in its original language suggested (for it means “uncuttable” in Greek). He stated that there could be nothing smaller than an atom, despite the fact that there was not yet (nor would there ever be in the future) any real evidence that this was the case. In his mind, he had found the most basic building blocks of the universe. Of course Dalton turned out to be quite wrong about this, as most people have learned quite early in school. Of course, a scientist is only as good as the tools we have to work with, and Dalton certainly made great headway with the still rather primitive scientific tools at his disposal (and with a absolutely no previous work in order to compare his own to). Still, the appropriate thing to do from a scientific perspective would have been to make no assertions beyond what was readily evident via experimentation. Still, perhaps it is the mark of a good scientist that John Dalton was willing to go out on a limb and make such a bold assertion in the first place. After all, he was questioning more than two thousand years of scientific dogma, perhaps he thought that having found the ultimate building blocks would serve him even better in posterity. __

__ Surely, John Dalton couldn’t possibly have known what was in store for atomic theory. While he surely died relatively confident that his atoms did, in fact, exist, he could not possibly have foreseen the discovery of their structure, or their many parts, or the forces that bind them all together. He could never have guessed that the theory he played such an important role in would have led to the Large Hadron Collider – the largest, most expensive, particle accelerator in history which has been designed to probe the depths of atoms and their subatomic constituents. __



( Niels Bohr)

Niels Henrik David Bohr ( 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a [|Danish] [|physicist] who made fundamental contributions to understanding [|atomic structure] and [|quantum mechanics], for which he received the [|Nobel Prize] in [|Physics] in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in[|Copenhagen]. He was part of a team of physicists working on the [|Manhattan Project]. Bohr married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, [|Aage Bohr], grew up to be an important physicist who in 1975 also received the Nobel prize. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century.[|[1]] He was the leader of the quantum revolution, in more than one sense of the word. As a physicist, he proposed his atomic model in 1913, subsequently perfecting it and showing its immense predictive power. As an entrepreneur, he established his Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1921, making it the Mecca for the younger generation of physicists from all over the world pursuing the implications of the quantum, under the guidance of their leader and teacher, Niels Bohr. As a philosopher and teacher, he was the principal person in formulating the “Copenhagen Interpretation” of quantum mechanics, incorporating the complementarity concept, which to Bohr had implications far beyond physics. But Bohr’s achievements went much further. In physics, he made crucial contributions not least to nuclear physics and the theory of collisions. From 1933 to 1940, he made his institute into a temporary haven for young physicists no longer welcome in Germany for reasons of race or politics. After his escape from Nazi-occupied Denmark in October 1943, he contributed to the development of the atomic bomb in America. At the same time, he pursued his own mission to convince British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the American U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt that they should inform the Soviet Union of the atomic bomb project in order to avoid a nuclear arms race after the war. After the war, Bohr continued his efforts for what he called an “Open World”, as evidenced, for example, in his Open Letter to the United Nations from 1950. While Bohr’s orientation was thus genuinely international, he felt great obligation to Denmark, the land that he loved and never considered leaving, in spite of many tempting offers from abroad. In Denmark, especially in the postwar years, he came to hold iconic status.

 Max Karl Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858, in Kiel, Germany, the sixth child of a distinguished jurist and professor of law at the University of Kiel. He made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized our understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as Albert Einstein's theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of space and time. Together they constitute the fundamental theories of 20th-century physics. Both have forced man to revise some of his most cherished philosophical beliefs, and both have led to industrial and military applications that affect every aspect of modern life.

With his discovery of elementary energy quanta, Max Planck (1858-1947) not only caused an upheaval in physics but also profoundly reshaped the exact sciences. His reputation, however, is based not only on his exceptional achievements as a physicist but also to a large degree on his personal integrity. On February 26, 1948, the newly-founded Max Planck Society in Göttingen adopted his scientific and moral doctrine of serving the truth in science regardless of current trends.

(<span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 26px; line-height: 26px;">Werner Heisenberg)[| . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piplRjX6r-g&feature=related]

<span style="color: #888888; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 14px;">One of the greatest Theoretical Physicists of the 20th Century, produced countless papers and the infamous Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 20px;">German theoretical physicist Werner Karl Heisenberg, b. Dec. 5, 1901, d. Feb. 1, 1976, was one of the leading scientists of the 20th century. He did important work in nuclear and particle physics, but his most significant contribution was to the development of quantum mechanics. He is best known for his uncertainty principle, which restricts the accuracy with which some properties of atoms and particles--such as position and linear momentum--can be determined simultaneously. Heisenberg studied physics at the University of Munich, where he worked under Arnold Sommerfeld. A lecture series by Niels Bohr convinced him to work on quantum theory. He went to Bohr's Copenhagen institute, where he collaborated with Dutch physicist Hendryk Kramers, and then to the University of Gottingen. There, in 1925, Heisenberg invented matrix mechanics, the first version of quantum mechanics. In subsequent work with German physicists Max Born and Pascual Jordan, he extended this into a complete mathematical theory of the behavior of atoms and their constituents. The physical principles underlying the mathematics of quantum mechanics remained mysterious until 1927, when Heisenberg--following conversations with Bohr and Albert Einstein--discovered the uncertainty principle. An important book Heisenberg published in 1928, The Physical Principles of Quantum Theory, described his ideas. The previous year he had become a professor at the University of Leipzig, and in 1932 he was awarded the Nobel prize in physics. He remained in Germany during the Nazi period and became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, also heading the unsuccessful German nuclear weapons project. In 1958, Heisenberg became director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics. He spent his later years working toward a general theory of subatomic particles. Heisenberg's work has had important influences in philosophy as well as physics. Some of his own works, such as Physics and Philosophy (1962) and Physics and Beyond (1971), deal with philosophical issues.

( //**Louis de Broglie)**// <span style="color: #645a60; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px;">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1929 was awarded to Louis de Broglie "for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons".

<span style="color: #444444; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;"> //Determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were those of interference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave properties) must be assigned to them also. (**Louis de Broglie**, on Quantum Theory, 1929, Nobel Prize Speech)// //Thus I arrived at the following general idea which has guided my researches: for matter, just as much as for radiation, in particular light, we must introduce at one and the same time the corpuscle concept and the wave concept. In other words, in both cases we must assume the existence of corpuscles accompanied by waves. But corpuscles and waves cannot be independent, since, according to Bohr, they are complementary to each other; consequently it must be possible to establish a certain parallelism between the motion of a corpuscle and the propagation of the wave which is associated with it. (Quantum Theory, Louis de Broglie)// It is with some frustration that I now read these quotes, as it is obvious in hindsight as to their errors, and how simply they can now be solved. de Broglie's realisation that standing waves exist at discrete frequencies and thus energies is obviously true and important, yet he continued with the error of the particle concept and thus imagined particles moving in a wavelike manner! Nonetheless, as he was close to the truth he had considerable success with his theory, and these predicted wave properties of matter were shortly thereafter confirmed from experiments (Davisson and Germer, 1927) on the scattering of electrons through crystals (which act as diffraction slits). As Albert Einstein confirms; //Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the **wave character** of the phenomena of **motion**as assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to the facts. (**Albert Einstein**, 1954)// So by 1927 the wave properties of matter had been predicted theoretically by de Broglie, and then confirmed by experiment. But unfortunately these scientists continued to believe in the existence of discrete particles, and thus they misinterpreted this most important discovery of the standing wave properties of matter. ===<span style="color: #330033; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">//de Broglie's Interpretation of the Standing Waves as the Wave-Like Motion of a Particle in Orbit (1927)// === In 1913, Niels Bohr had developed a simple (though only partly correct) model for the hydrogen atom that assumed; (Our further comments in brackets) i) That the electron particle moves in circular orbits about the proton particle. (This is nearly correct, they are not 'orbits' but complex Standing Wave patterns) ii) Only certain orbits are stable. (This is nearly correct, only certain Standing Wave patterns are resonantly stable) iii) Light is emitted and absorbed by the atom when the electron 'jumps' from one allowed orbital state to a another. (This is nearly correct, the electrons move from one stable Standing Wave pattern to another. This is known as 'Resonant Coupling' and is explained in Section 1.4.) This early atomic model had some limited success because it was obviously created to explain the discrete energy states of light emitted and absorbed by bound electrons in atoms or molecules, as discovered by Planck in 1900. de Broglie was aware of Bohr's model for the atom and he cleverly found a way of explaining why only certain orbits were 'allowed' for the electron. As Albert Einstein explains; //de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected with a hypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character of Bohr's 'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding waves. (**Albert Einstein**, 1940)// <span style="color: #330033; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal;"> de Broglie assumed that because light had both particle and wave properties, that this may also be true for matter. Thus he was not actually looking for the wave structure of matter. Instead, as matter was already assumed to be a particle, he was looking for wave properties of matter to complement the known particle properties. As a consequence of this particle/wave duality, de Broglie imagined the standing waves to be related to discrete wavelengths and standing waves for certain orbits of the electron particle about the proton. (Rather than considering the actual standing wave structure of the electron itself.) From de Broglie's perspective, and from modern physics at that time, this solution had a certain charm. It maintained the particle - wave duality for BOTH light and matter, and at the same time explained why only certain orbits of the electron (which relate to whole numbers of standing waves) were allowed, which fitted beautifully with Niels Bohr model of the atom. de Broglie further explains his reasoning for the particle/wave duality of matter in his 1929 Nobel Prize acceptance speech; //On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it defines the energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the frequency f. Now a purely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a frequency; for this reason alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to introduce the idea of a particle and that of frequency simultaneously. On the other hand, determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were those of interference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave properties) must be assigned to them also. (**de Broglie**, 1929)// The solution to their problems was first found by Wolff (1986). He discovered two things (both of which deserve a Nobel prize in their own right); Firstly, from reading Feynman's PhD thesis (see reference, Feynman and Wheeler, 1945) he was aware of Feynman's conception of charged particles which 'somehow' generated Spherical Electromagnetic In and Out Waves (Feynman called them advanced and retarded waves), but Wolff realised that there are no solutions for spherical vector electromagnetic waves (which are mathematical waves which require both a quantity of force and a direction of force, i.e. vector). Wolff had the foresight to try using real waves, which are Scalar (defined by their Wave-Amplitude only). And this then led to a series of remarkable discoveries. He realised that spherical In and Out-Waves removed the need for a separate particle, as the Wave-Center of the Spherical Waves created the particle effect. He then discovered that when one spherical standing wave was moving relative to another the Doppler shifts gave rise to BOTH the **de Broglie Wavelength** AND the **Mass increase of Albert Einstein's Relativity**. (i.e. Wolff demonstrated that when two charged particles (Wave-Centers of two SSWs) are moving relative to one another they gives rise to beats of interference (caused by the Doppler shifting of the In and Out Waves due to relative Motion) which were identified in experiments as the de Broglie wavelength y=h/mv, and also gave rise to the frequency increases and thus energy/mass increases (as E=hf =mc2) of Special Relativity. Thus in the one equation he had deduced, with mathematical certainty, the two observed phenomena due to relative motion, which respectively found central parts of both Quantum Theory and Albert Einstein's Special Relativity. (Thus for the first time uniting these two theories from one common theoretical foundation!) This then led to his further work on resonant coupling which finally solved the puzzle of the 'photon' and explained why light energy is only ever emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts. Unfortunately for modern physics, and ultimately for human knowledge, this obvious solution was never considered by de Broglie, Albert Einstein, Bohr, Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Dirac, Born, Feynman, etc. etc. Thus the now obvious solution of realising that matter was a Spherical Standing Wave that causes the point particle effect at the Wave-Center remained unknown and ignored, and instead, the confusing and paradoxical concept of the particle / wave duality was retained.
 * Fig: 1. The allowed discrete orbits of the electron as imagined by de Broglie.**

__ John Dalton's Original Table of Atomic Weights - Public Domain __

__ ﻿[|http://www.wonderwhizkids.com/resources] __ __ [|/content/images/5340.jpg] __

=Safety Equipment= <span style="color: #333333; font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">The following safety equipment is available in the general chemistry lab. Know where it is and how to use it. Your TA will know how, if you are not sure.

<span style="color: #333333; font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">During your first lab period, you will be asked to locate each piece of safety equipment in the lab, as well as two exits. This **Safety Quiz** appears in the front of your lab manual. <span style="color: #333333; font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">**Eye Wash**

<span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">In the event of an eye injury or chemical splash, use the eyewash immediately.
 * [[image:http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chemlab/info/graphics/safety/eyewash.gif width="190" height="160" caption="Eye Wash"]] || [[image:http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chemlab/resources/dot_clear.gif width="1" height="1"]] || <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">[[image:http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chemlab/resources/dot_clear.gif width="1" height="1"]]

<span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">Help the injured person by holding their eyelids open while rinsing.

<span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,arial;">Rinse copiously and have the eyes checked by a physician afterwards. ||

= FIRE EXTINGUISHERS = ==== A fire extinguisher is an device active fire protection used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user (i.e. no escape route, smoke, explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise requires the assistance of a fire truck. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire.There are two main types of fire extinguishers: stored pressure and cartridge-operated. In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the firefighting agent itself. Depending on the agent used, different propellants are used. With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam extinguishers typically use air. Stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most common type. The two most common types of extinguishers in laboratories are pressurized dry chemical and carbon dioxide extinguishers. ====

** CO2 Fire Extinguisher Dry Chemical Fire Extinguisher **
== ==

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=﻿ ﻿SAFETY SHOWER = Large chemical exposures require the use of a safety shower to flush chemicals off the body. If the chemical exposure is sufficiently large to require the use of a safety shower, be careful not to spread the chemical to uncontaminated parts of the body. It would be better to cut clothing away from the body than to try to pull it off. Make it an organizational policy that medical intervention is required if the shower is activated for use. Eye exposure can be really bad and is a medical emergency. Prudent Practices gives some first aid guidelines for chemical splashes to the eye. It will probably take at least one other person to assist the injured person flushing the eyes to hold the eyelids open and to make sure the eyes are being flushed.
 * 1.** Receive training on how to operate the emergency shower from a supervisor or instructor. Usually this will include watching a video, reading a short pamphlet or taking a short test. This ensures you know how to properly operate an emergency shower and can do so without any problem in case of an emergency. You should know what types of emergencies you should use the shower for, including chemical spills and splashes and a person catching fire.
 * 2.** Locate the emergency shower and make sure it is accessible. There should not be any furniture or other items blocking a path to get to the emergency shower. If the lab is large, there may be more than one emergency shower. Be sure you know where all showers are located inside your lab.
 * 3.** Turn the shower on by pulling the handle attached to the cord. This will dump gallons of water down, washing the affected area. It is important to remove any affected clothing while rinsing off under the shower so the chemicals or flames do not stay close to theskin. Modesty is not important in an emergency situation.
 * 4.** Rinse affected area for at least 15 minutes to be sure the chemical is completely washed off the body or the fire is completely extinguished. Water will continue to flow from the emergency shower until it is turned off. You must stop the water flow by forcefully pushing the water handle upward until the flow stops.
 * 5.** Seek medical attention. Even if the chemical is rinsed off the skin or the flames are put out, it is important to have the patient checked out by a doctor or medic to ensure everything is ok. If there is some lasting trace of the chemical on the skin, it could lead to a chemical burn or other health risk if not treated properly. In addition, burns need to be assessed and treated.

=FIRE BLANKET= Fire blankets are used to quickly put out small fires. They are made of fiberglass or wool and are often treated with fire-retardant chemicals to improve their effectiveness. Smaller fire blankets, for domestic purposes are made from fiberglass and the bigger ones for commercial and laboratory uses are mostly made of wool. When thrown over a person or object that is on fire, the blanket cuts off the oxygen supply to the fire, helping to extinguish the flames. Fire blankets should have an NFPA - National Fire Protection Ratings for ensuring that they work properly.You will need to have proper safety gear for using fire blankets, like fire proof gloves and even a mask if need be.

**//Step #1//** As mentioned earlier, see if the fire blanket is not a regular one which are in most cases not made of fire retardant material. In fact, they are inflammable and rather than putting the fire off they themselves can catch fire.

**//Step #2//** Roll your sleeves properly before you use the blanket and wear gloves so that you do not burn your hands. Wrap the top corners of the top edge of the blanket on your hands to save them from getting burnt. This is one of the very important fire safety tips.

**//Step #3//** Here comes the most important part regarding how to use a fire blanket. Gradually and carefully, drape the blanket over the fire. The blanket should properly cover the area from which the flames are coming and then laying flush against the thing you are trying to save.

**//Step #4//** While you are draping the blanket, ensure that there is no scope for air to pass either from behind the blanket or from under the blanket. Cutting off the air supply totally will ensure that the fire dies down in a few moments and fire safety is achieved.

Before you touch the blanket once the fire is out, let the blanket cool down for 30 to 60 minutes. After ensuring that it is completely safe to handle the blanket, with no smoldering or flames, the blanket can then be cleaned and refolded for future use. Further, when you are dealing with how to use a fire blanket on a person, it is always better to throw or drape the blanket over the person who has caught fire and then get that person on the ground. This helps put off the fire faster than the traditional method of stop, drop and roll, regarding how to use a fire blanket.



= GOGGLES =

====<span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">Goggles or safety glasses are forms of protective eyeware that usually enclose or protect the area surrounding the eye in order to prevent water or chemicals from striking the eyes. They are used for eye protection. A lab is a dangerous place for eyes because chemicals can accidentally be splashed into your eyes. Many chemicals give fumes that can irritate eyes goggles protect against these harmful fumes.====

= ﻿GLOVES =

Your Hands are most likely to be exposed to chemical contact under normal situations. Even though being careful technique may help you avoid direct contact with a chemical; the potential for exposure still demands the use of protective gloves.
 * Disposable latex and PVC gloves have an important role in laboratories and health care settings; however they are NOT SUITABLE for direct contact with aggressive or highly toxic chemicals.
 * Sometimes the ideal glove is two gloves worn together, combining the advantages of both.
 * It is usually not necessary to replace reusable gloves unless they become discolored or show signs of damage. If you suspect that they have been contaminated, replace them immediately - once a chemical has begun to diffuse it will continue to diffuse even when the chemical on the outside has been removed. NEVER REUSE DISPOSABLE GLOVES!
 * Store reusable gloves away from chemicals. Even chemical vapors may cause damage.
 * The use of protective gloves within the laboratory is essential in many instances. However, it is important to realize that if you are wearing gloves while handling chemicals, you must never come in contact with any item that a person not wearing gloves could. For instance, if you are entering or leaving the lab, DO NOT touch the door handle with your gloves on. While you are clearly unaffected by this action, any contaminants on your gloves will be transferred to the hand of the next person that opens the door with an ungloved hand. Likewise, remove your gloves if you are pressing elevator buttons, using a computer keyboard, using a pen that might also be used later by yourself or another person not wearing gloves, etc. Also, do not touch your face, hair, etc. while wearing protective gloves.

=<span style="font-size: 1.4em; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px;">**Examples of Chemical Properties** =

Chemical properties include flammability (the ability to catch on fire), toxicity (the ability to be poisonous), oxidation (the ability to react with oxygen, which causes apple slices to turn brown and iron to rust), radioactivity (spontaneously emitting energy in the form of particles or waves by the disintegration of their atomic nuclei), and sensitivity to light (which causes newspaper to turn yellow).A **corrosive substance** is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface or substance with which it comes into contact.

= Examples of Physical Properties = = media type="youtube" key="epDXLbbDZG8?fs=1" height="385" width="480" =

Compare and contrast protons,neutrons and electrons based on their mass, charge and location in the atom.

=Protons & Neutrons= A protom is a subatomic particle found on the nucleus of all conventional atoms. The only place where you can find matter without protons is in a neutronstar or the core of powerful particles acceleratos. The protons have a positive charge, wich balancesout in the negative charge in a atom, electrons.If an atom has an inbalance of protoms or neutrons, it is no longer neutral and becames a charge particle, also known as a ion. http://www.wisegeek.com

=Electrons= electrons are much smaller than neutrons and protoms. The mass is a single neutron or protom is more than 1,800 tiems greater than the mass of an electron. Electrons have a negative electrical charge, which a magnitude wich is sometimes called the elementary charge or fundamental charge. thus an electron is said to have a charge of -1. Protons have a charge of the same strenght but opposite polarity +1. http://www.window2universe.org



=Periodic table showing carbon=



http://www.google.com

atomic number: 6 atomic mass: 12.01 neutrons: 6 electrons: 6
 * 1) of protons: 6

Compound: A compund is a substance formed when two or more elements are chemically joined. Water salt and sugar are examples of compund.when the element are joined, The atom loose their individual properties and have different properties from the element they are composed of. A chemical is the quick way to composition of compounds.

Mixtures: Two or more substances that are mixed together but not chemically joined. A good example of a mixture is a salad. no chemical reaction occured between the vegetables and dressing.

Homogeneus: elements that are all the same. http://www.nyu.edu

Heterogeneous mixture: Any combination of subtance that does not have uniform composition and properties. a mixture of physically distinct substances with different properties. http://www.dictionary.refernce.com =**Realtive Abundance**= Most elements come in multiple isotopes, atoms that have the same # of protons ans electrons but diferent number of neutrons.Diffrent isotopes react the same chemically, but their atomic weight are different; the atomic weight givin in the textbook for the element are the average of all the different isotopes. the figure out that average, scientist have to know that weights of the different isotpes and how abundant they are compared to each. = **Atomic mass Lithium**: (0.075) (6.015122amu) (0.925) (7.016003amu)= 6.9409amu=
 * problem:** __Lithium has a 6 atom percent abundance of 7.5% and a atomic mass of 6.015122amu Lithium has a atomic abundance of 92.5% and a atomic mass of 7.016003amu__

=// Chemical and Physical properties //=

<span style="font-family: monospace,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;"><object width="480" height="385"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/5yjEDihEuZI?fs=1&amp;hl=en_US"> <param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"> <param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"> <embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/5yjEDihEuZI?fs=1&amp;hl=en_US" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="480" height="385"> == Physical properties are those that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. The general properties of matter such as color, density, hardness, are examples of physical properties. Properties that describe how a substance changes into a completely different substance are called chemical properties. Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance are examples of chemical properties. ==


 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 160%;">Compare and contrast protons, neutrons and electrons based on their mass, charge and location in the atom . __**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">=> Each atom is made up of a nucleus and a number of orbiting electrons. The nucleus is found at the center of an atom. It is composed of particles called protons, which are positively charged, and neutrons, which have no charge. Therefore the nucleus always has a positive charge. A neutron and a proton are jointly called a nucleon. The electrons that orbit the nucleus have a negative charge. When atoms have the same number of electrons and protons, they have a neutral charge. When atoms have more protons than electron they have a positive charge. By contrast, if there are more electrons than protons, the atom is negatively charged. Charged atoms are called ions.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">A proton is one of the three types of subatomic particles, the other two being neutrons <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> and electrons. Protons have an electric charge of +1. A proton has slightly less mass than a neutron.
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Proton **

**<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Neutron ** <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Neutrons are one of the three types of subatomic particles, the other two being protons and electrons. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> A neutron has slightly more mass than a proton and unlike the electrons and protons has no charge.

Electron
Electrons are the subatomic particle having a negative charge and orbiting the nucleus; the flow of electrons in a conductor constitutes electricity.

<span style="background-image: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; color: black; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> Size
The mass of an atom is determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The lightest element in existence is hydrogen, which has only one proton. The combined number of protons and neutrons possessed by an element is knows as its atomic mass. The average atomic mass of the elements on Earth can be found displayed in the [|periodic table]. Unlike a proton, a neutron has no charge, but its mass is about the same as that of a proton. The mass of the proton or neutron is 1836 times bigger than that of the electron.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Protons and Neutrons are in the middle of the atom, or the nucleus. Electrons Rotate around them on the outside. Protons and Neutrons should not be able to stick toghether as they do, except that they exchange Quarks, or little packets of energy. The electrons rotate because of their repulsion to the protons. __


 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">Given the relative abundance of an element's isotopes calculate the element's atomic mass. __**


 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**The mass spectrum for boron**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**The mass spectrum for boron**

|| <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The two peaks in the mass spectrum shows that there are 2 isotopes of boron - with relative isotopic masses of 10 and 11 on the 12C scale. || <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The relative sizes of the peaks gives you a direct measure of the relative abundances of the isotopes. The tallest peak is often given an arbitrary height of 100 - but you may find all sorts of other scales used. It doesn't matter in the least. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">You can find the relative abundances by measuring the lines on the stick diagram. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">In this case, the two isotopes (with their relative abundances) are: || <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">boron-10 || || <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">23 || <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**//Working out the relative atomic mass//** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The relative atomic mass (RAM) of an element is given the symbol**Ar** and is defined as: <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">A "weighted average" allows for the fact that there won't be equal amounts of the various isotopes. The example coming up should make that clear. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Suppose you had 123 typical atoms of boron. 23 of these would be 10B and 100 would be 11B. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The total mass of these would be (23 x 10) + (100 x 11) = 1330 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The average mass of these 123 atoms would be 1330 / 123 = 10.8 (to 3 significant figures). <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">10.8 is the relative atomic mass of boron. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Notice the effect of the "weighted" average. A simple average of 10 and 11 is, of course, 10.5. Our answer of 10.8 allows for the fact that there are a lot more of the heavier isotope of boron - and so the "weighted" average ought to be closer to that.
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**//The number of isotopes//**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**//The number of isotopes//**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**//The abundance of the isotopes//**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**//The abundance of the isotopes//**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">boron-11 || [[image:http://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/masspec/padding.GIF width="10" height="15" align="center"]] || <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">100 ||
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes on a scale on which a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units. ||

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">**The mass spectrum of chlorine** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Chlorine is taken as typical of elements with more than one atom per molecule. We'll look at its mass spectrum to show the sort of problems involved. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Chlorine has two isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl, in the approximate ratio of 3 atoms of 35Cl to 1 atom of 37Cl. You might suppose that the mass spectrum would look like this:



<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">You would be wrong! <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The problem is that chlorine consists of molecules, not individual atoms. When chlorine is passed into the ionisation chamber, an electron is knocked off the molecule to give a **//molecular ion,//** Cl2+. These ions won't be particularly stable, and some will fall apart to give a chlorine atom and a Cl+ ion. The term for this is**//fragmentation.//** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;"> <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">If the Cl //atom// formed isn't then ionised in the ionisation chamber, it simply gets lost in the machine - neither accelerated nor deflected. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The Cl+ ions will pass through the machine and will give lines at 35 and 37, depending on the isotope and you would get exactly the pattern in the last diagram. The problem is that you will also record lines for the //unfragmented// Cl2+ ions. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Think about the possible combinations of chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 atoms in a Cl2+ ion. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">Both atoms could be 35Cl, both atoms could be 37Cl, or you could have one of each sort. That would give you total masses of the Cl2+ ion of: <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">35 + 35 = 70 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">35 + 37 = 72 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">37 + 37 = 74 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">That means that you would get a set of lines in the m/z = 70 region looking like this:



<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">These lines would be //in addition// to the lines at 35 and 37. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The relative heights of the 70, 72 and 74 lines are in the ratio 9:6:1. If you know the right bit of maths, it's very easy to show this. If not, don't worry. Just remember that the ratio is 9:6:1. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">What you can't do is make any predictions about the relative heights of the lines at 35/37 compared with those at 70/72/74. That depends on what proportion of the molecular ions break up into fragments. That's why you've got the chlorine mass spectrum in two separate bits so far. You must realize that the vertical scale in the diagrams of the two parts of the spectrum isn't the same. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Helvetica,Arial;">The overall mass spectrum looks like this:



=Compare and Contrast Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons=

atom || nucleus || nucleus || outside nucleus ||
 * || protons || neutrons || electrons ||
 * mass (amu) || 1 || 1 || 1 ||
 * charge || positive || neutral || negative ||
 * location in

=Physical Properties= __Density__- the "heaviness" of an object __Conductivity__- measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass through a material __Melting point__- temperature when a becomes a liquid __Boiling point__- temperature when a liquid becomes a gas __Malleability__- bending a solid object without breaking __Ductility__- The ability of a material to be plastically deformed by elongation, without fracture. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Read more: []

= (a)Identify examples of important physical properties include density, conductivity, melting point, boiling point, malleability and ductility? = = 1)DENSITY- is a physical property of matter, as each element and compound has a unique density associated with it. Density defined in a qualitative manner as the measure of the relative "heaviness" of objects with a constant volume.For example: A rock is obviously more dense than a crumpled piece of paper of the same size. A styrofoam cup is less dense than a ceramic = = 2)Melting point-Melting point is referred as the temperature at which the solid and liquid states of a pure substance can exist in equilibrium position.If the heat is applied to a solid, its temperature increases till it reaches the melting point. At this temperature, the additional heat converts the solid into liquid without a change in temperature. =

= Boiling point-The temperature at which a substance changes from liquid state to gaseous state is referred as boiling point.If the pressure of the surrounding gases is decreased, the boiling point of a liquid is lowered. Usually, water will boil at a lower temperature at the top of a mountain, since the atmospheric pressure on the water is less, than it will at sea level, where the pressure is greater. =

= Malleability and ductility = = Metals can be beaten into sheets (malleability) and drawn into wires (ductility). Metallic bonds are non-directional in nature. Whenever any stress is applied on metals, the position of adjacent layers of metallic kernels is altered without destroying the crystal. The metallic lattice gets deformed but the environment of kernels does not change and remains the same as before. The deforming forces simply move the kernels from one lattice site to another. = = = = Fig: 6.20 - Displacement of metal kernels in a metallic lattice = [] =**﻿**= =**DIfferance between chemical and physical properties**=

The difference between a physical and chemical property is straightforward until the phase of the material is considered. When a material changes from a solid to a liquid to a vapor it seems like them become a difference substance. However, when a material melts, solidifies, vaporizes, condenses or sublimes, only the state of the substance changes. Consider ice, liquid water, and water vapor, they are all simply H2O. Phase is a physical property of matter and matter can exist in four phases – solid, liquid, gas and plasma.

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=Safety Equipment=

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PHYSICAL PROPERTY : PROPERTIES THAT DO NOT CHANGE THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF MATTER. EX : COLOR, SMELL, FROZING POINT, ATTRACTION OR REPULSION. CHEMICAL PROPERTY : PROPERTIES THAT DO CHANGE CHEMICAL NATURE OF MATTER. EX : REACTIVITY WITH WATER,PH, AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

chemical and physical changes

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=Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons=

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=Chemical and Physical Properties= media type="youtube" key="7BsqAdAiQuE?fs=1" height="385" width="480"